He lived 1773 to 1858 and discovered cell nucleus [1827] and Brownian movement [1828].
He lived 1804 to 1865 and invented Lenz's law [1834].
He lived 1820 to 1872, developed Rankine temperature scale, and invented first energy-conservation law.
He lived 1837 to 1923, discovered Van der Waals forces [1880], and studied equilibrium matter states [1890].
He lived 1852 to 1908 and studied radioactivity [1896].
She lived 1876 to 1933 and studied radioactivity and element transmutation [1899 to 1907]. She discovered radon and nuclei recoil after radioactivity.
He lived 1858 to 1947 and found Plank's constant [1900]. He studied blackbody radiation, radiation absorption and emission quantum theory, and electromagnetic radiation energy. Light has energy proportional to frequency. Blackbody radiation intensity is proportional to temperature, because many oscillators with different, discrete frequencies cause radiation [1900]. Sum of frequency intensities is not infinite.
He lived 1863 to 1906 and studied metal free electrons [1902].
He lived 1868 to 1953 and measured electron charge [1911].
He lived 1853 to 1926 and discovered superconductivity [1911].
He lived 1871 to 1937 and discovered atom central nucleus [1911], orbited by electrons.
He lived 1884 to 1966 and invented Debye-Hückel theory [1936] and studied vibration energy. Vibration energy equals mechanical-vibration frequency times Planck constant [1912].
He lived 1868 to 1951 and studied Bohr atom and elliptical electron orbits [1913].
He lived 1885 to 1962, studied electromagnetic radiation energies, and explained atomic spectra. Absorbed or emitted light has electron orbital-transition energies [1913]. Electron angular momentum is shell number times Planck constant divided by 2 * pi. Electron rotation frequencies have discrete values. He philosophized about waves and particle complementarity and invented Copenhagen quantum-mechanics interpretation [1928].
He lived 1875 to 1965 and studied Bohr atom [1913] and semiconductor average drift velocity per unit force [1932].
He lived 1887 to 1975 and studied photoelectric effect {Franck-Hertz effect}, with James Franck [1914].
He stated that relativity causes orbiting-particle orbit-plane precession around a rotating mass, because rotation and angular momentum couple [1918], with Hans Thirring. He studied Lense-Thirring effect, frame dragging, and gravitomagnetism.
He lived 1888 to 1976. He stated that relativity causes orbiting-particle orbit-plane precession around a rotating mass, because rotation and angular momentum couple [1918], with Joseph Lense. He studied Lense-Thirring effect, frame dragging, and gravitomagnetism.
He lived 1895 to 1931. Schwarzschild, Tetrode [1922], and Fokker developed perfect absorption to renormalize Maxwell's equations.
He lived 1892 to 1962 and found Compton radiation [1923].
He lived 1894 to 1974 and developed Bose-Einstein statistics for bosons [1924].
He lived 1892 to 1987. Matter has wave properties, all particles have associated waves, and electron orbits are resonating waves {theory of the double solution} [1924]. Momentum times wavelength equals Planck constant, so mass in motion has wavelength.
He lived 1902 to 1978 and measured electron spin [1925], with Uhlenbeck.
He lived 1902 to 1980 and contributed to matrix mechanics as quantum-mechanics explanation [1925], with Max Born.
He lived 1900 to 1988 and measured electron spin [1925], with Goudsmit. Spectra require particle rotation {spin, Uhlenbeck}, which is angular-momentum component. Spin is required and intrinsic to some particles.
He lived 1900 to 1958, invented Pauli exclusion principle [1925], and predicted neutrinos [1930].
He lived 1901 to 1976, invented theory of infinite matrices and matrix mechanics {S matrix theory} as quantum-mechanics explanation [1926], and developed uncertainty principle [1927].
He lived 1904 to 1990 and discovered Cerenkov effect [1926] and Cerenkov radiation [1934].
He lived 1901 to 1954, developed Fermi-Dirac statistics for fermions [1926], studied radioactive decay, and invented controlled chain reaction [1942].
He lived 1887 to 1961 and invented Schrödinger wave equation [1926]. Schrödinger-equation WKBJ solution was later.
He lived 1902 to 1984, developed Fermi-Dirac statistics for fermions [1926], invented Dirac equation for electron [1928], and developed relativistic quantum mechanics and relativistic wave equation [1931]. He showed how to subtract particle field, which becomes infinite at point, and leave surrounding field, if particle position, velocity, and acceleration have values. Many initial accelerations cause particles to accelerate continuously {runaway solutions}.
He lived 1902 to 1995 and developed non-commuting observable-function theory [1926]. Consciousness causes wavefunction collapse [1961].
He lived 1881 to 1958 and studied electron diffraction [1927], with Germer.
He lived 1896 to 1971 and studied electron diffraction [1927], with Davisson.
He lived 1904 to 1981 and helped invent Heitler-London hydrogen-molecule electronic-structure theory [1927].
He lived 1900 to 1954 and helped invent Heitler-London hydrogen-molecule electronic-structure theory [1927].
von Neumann lived 1903 to 1957. Wigner lived 1902 to 1995. They developed algebraic quantum-mechanics theory [1928 to 1929].
He lived 1887 to 1972. Schwarzschild, Tetrode, and Fokker [1929] developed perfect absorption to renormalize Maxwell's equations.
He lived 1905 to 1991 and found anti-electron or positron [1932].
He lived 1896 to 1980 and invented Debye-Hückel theory [1932].
He lived 1906 to 1938 and showed how Riemann sphere can designate n - 1 independent unordered spatial spin directions for a particle with spin 0.5 * n, with no opposite directions [1932]. Quantum mechanically, particle spins about many spatial axes simultaneously. However, large particle collections spin around one axis. It is not clear how collective spin is sum of particle spins and thus depends on wavefunction superpositions. Only wavefunction reduction eliminates other possibilities.
He lived 1904 to 1967 and developed the Born-Oppenheimer relation between molecular rotation, vibration, and electronic structure [1932]. He and Hartland Snyder used general relativity to describe black holes [1939]. He and G. M. Volkov found mass limit {Landau-Oppenheimer-Volkov limit, Oppenheimer} for making black holes instead of neutron stars, 2.5 times Sun mass [1939]. He led Manhattan Project [1945].
He lived 1903 to 1976 and studied irreversible thermodynamics [1933]. He symmetrically related non-equilibrium-system forward and backward molecular processes {reciprocity relation}, such as osmosis and reverse osmosis or heating and thermocoupling.
He lived 1902 to 1967 and studied magnetism, developing resistive magnets [1933 to 1936] of stacked copper plates {Bitter plate}.
He lived 1891 to 1974 and studied electrons [1935].
He lived 1907 to 1981 and discovered pion [1935].
He lived 1894 to 1984 and discovered helium-4 superfluidity [1938].
She lived 1878 to 1968 and described nuclear fission [1939] with Otto Frisch.
He lived 1906 to 2005 and described carbon-nitrogen and proton-proton nuclear-fusion cycles [1939].
He lived 1888 to 1976 and developed unitary particle interpretation [1941 to 1956].
He lived 1915 to 2005 and built atomic bomb [1945].
He lived 1908 to 2002 and built atomic bomb [1945].
He lived 1915 to 1994 and worked on atomic bomb [1945].
They discovered electron Lamb shift [1947].
He lived 1919 to ? and invented universe steady-state theory [1948], with Hoyle and Gold.
He lived 1909 to 2000 and found Casimir effect [1948].
He lived 1918 to 1988 and developed quantum electrodynamics [1948], renormalization group theory [1948], and path integral theory [1948].
He lived 1895 to 1982 and studied cryogenics [1949].
He lived 1918 to 1998 and developed C* algebra theory for quantum mechanics [1951].
He lived 1917 to 1992 and developed the hidden particle theory and pilot wave interpretation [1952], from study of Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen experiment.
Yang lived 1922 to ?. Mills lived 1927 to 1999. They studied Yang-Mills field [Yang and Mills, 1954].
He lived 1902 to 1974 and discovered neutrinos [1956], with Reines.
He lived 1918 to 1998 and discovered neutrinos [1956], with Cowan.
Bardeen lived 1908 to 1991. Cooper lived 1930 to ?. Schrieffer lived 1931 to ?. They invented BCS superconductivity theory, in which electrons distort positive-ion lattices to make phonons, which interact with second electrons, causing slight attraction and so pairing electrons [1957]. In superconductors, magnetic flux has quanta. Electric field has no quanta, but quantizing the field mathematically allows easier calculations. Critical temperature is higher if more electrons can be in superconductive state, if lattice-vibration frequencies are higher, and if electrons and lattice interact more strongly.
He lived 1930 to 1982 and modified generalized Lagrange multiplier method {Everett algorithm}, which finds optimum paths. Quantum systems, including measuring devices and observers, have probabilities of possible states. Reality includes all possible states, including separate realities for observer and observation states {relative state interpretation} {many-worlds interpretation} [1957].
He lived 1922 to 1998 and studied information theory, thermodynamics, and neoclassical radiation theory [1957].
He studied S-matrix theory [1961] and bootstrap hypothesis [1966].
He invented path integral quantum-mechanics theory [1962].
He lived 1907 to 1996 and invented Regge calculus [1962], addition to S-matrix theory.
He lived 1937 to ? and suggested quarks [1964], with Murray Gell-Mann.
He invented the idea of Higgs field and Higgs boson [1964 to 1966].
He lived 1928 to 1990. Instruments can measure coupled-particle spins to see if spins are separable. Positive-spin number along first-particle x-axis and second-particle y-axis is less than or equal to positive-spin number along first-particle x-axis and second-particle z-axis plus positive-spin number along first-particle y-axis and second-particle z-axis {Bell inequality} {Bell's inequalities}. In quantum mechanics, Bell inequality is not true. Two particles are not separable. No local hidden variables exist [1964] {Bell's theorem, Bell}.
He lived 1929 to ?, suggested quarks [1964], with George Zweig, and invented decoherence theory [1994].
He lived 1926 to 1999. Quasar density increases with redshift [1965], with Martin Rees.
Quantum waves collapse only when they interact with consciousness and observation. Brain can plan better from fewer possibilities. Consciousness is brain parts and activities that collapse wave functions. Brains do not affect probabilities but only initiate collapses.
He lived 1908 to 1995 and studied plasma physics.
Gravity causes wavefunction reduction.
He found that Euler beta-function describes properties of particles affected by strong force [1968].
He found that Euler beta-function describes particle properties affected by strong force, if particles are Planck-length, one-dimensional vibrating strings [1969].
He found that Euler beta-function describes particle properties affected by strong force, if particles are Planck-length, one-dimensional vibrating strings [1969].
He found that Euler beta-function describes particle properties affected by strong force, if particles are Planck-length, one-dimensional vibrating strings [1969]. He studied holographic principle and how it applies to string theory [1995].
They invented atomic-nucleus interacting boson model.
He lived 1914 to 1987. Gravity can cause baryons to decay, over 10^31 years [1976]. He described the Cosmological Constant problem [1967]: cosmological constant is 120 order of magnitude too great.
He invented aluminum-manganese alloy with fivefold symmetry and symmetry three dimensions {quasicrystal} [1984]. Later, others invented aluminum-lithium-copper alloy.
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They invented a thought experiment {GHZ experiment} [1989]. If three spin 1/2 particles have singlet state, two detectors oriented at different angles, perpendicular to moving particle path, can measure one particle's spin.
He lived 1931 to ? and developed quantum-mechanics objective reduction [Penrose, 1994].
Phase spaces can show results of non-commutative operations {non-commutative geometry, Connes} and so represent non-commutative algebras. For example, space rotations are non-commutative. Phase spaces representing quantum effects are non-commutative. Geometry can be non-commutative if axes are different, rather than equivalent. Cross products are non-commutative. His non-commutative phase space can represent all elementary particle symmetry groups. This space has two continuous spaces, which have bosons, linked by discrete non-commutative space, which has Higgs particles, predicted to have mass of 160 GeV. Using this space defines what renormalization is mathematically, rather than it looking ad hoc, with Dirk Kreimer. Perhaps, space has fractional dimensions related to gravitation. Gravity has non-commutation of quanta and operations, and this can give rise to time, just as atomic motions give rise to temperature, with Carlo Rovelli.
He invented decoherence theory, with Gell-Mann [1994]. With Robert Geroch, he studied quantum gravity as superpositions of all possible four-dimensional space-time curvatures weighted by complex numbers [1986], but it is impossible to prove that two different four-dimensional space-time topologies are the same, so they can be unique or degenerate.
ADD suggested that perceived space-time is inside universe with two more large dimensions [1998].
He suggested that universe is inside a universe with one more dimension, where most gravity stays, making perceived gravity weak [1999: with Randall]. Space-time is anti-de-Sitter space.
She suggested that universe is inside a universe with one more dimension, where most gravity stays, making perceived gravity weak [1999: with Sundrum]. Space-time is anti-de-Sitter space.
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Date Modified: 2022.0225